Old Latium

Foundation myths and early peoples

Several traditions describe the initial settlement of Latium by the Sicels and Ligures, who were later displaced by the Aborigines—a group said to dwell near Reate in the Apennines.^[8] According to Dionysius and later Roman authors, the Aborigines drove the Ligures northward into Liguria and the Sicels south to Sicily.

Legends also recount the arrival of Greek figures such as Evander of Pallene, who was said to have settled on the future site of Rome, and the Aeneads, whose descendants founded Lavinium and, later, Alba Longa.^[9] These cities were central to Roman foundation myths and the later formation of the Latin League. Religious traditions such as the cult of Jupiter Latiaris helped unify the region culturally, regardless of political autonomy.

Ancient settlement lists

Ancient authors attempted to catalogue the towns of Old Latium, though their lists differ in composition and purpose. Some emphasized ritual or symbolic unity; others reflected administrative or ethnographic concerns.

Evaluation and limitations

Other sources such as Strabo note the decline or disappearance of several towns, including Collatia, Antemnae, Fidenae, and Labicum.^[13] Philistos of Syracuse and Hellanicus of Lesbos offered further ethnographic traditions, including the idea that the Sicels were Ligurians led by a figure named Sikelos.^[14]

Modern scholarship emphasizes the symbolic and ideological roles of these lists rather than their literal accuracy. While some sites have been confirmed archaeologically, others likely refer to tribal units, cult centers, or vanished communities absorbed into later settlement patterns.^[15]

Early Latin sites (populi Albenses)

Pedum was situated between Tibur and Praeneste, near modern Gallicano nel Lazio. It was captured by the Romans during the campaigns of Coriolanus.^[16]

Tolerium is placed near Pedum by Dionysius of Halicarnassus, though its exact location is unknown.^[17]

Aefulae has been identified with a fortified hilltop near ancient Tibur. It was later resettled by the Romans as a military post.

Vitellia was reportedly located near the border between the Latin and Aequian territories, but its location remains uncertain.

Mythic and early conquest sites

Antemnae stood three miles north of Rome, at the junction of the Anio and Tiber rivers. It was said to have been colonized by Romulus and later revolted before being definitively subdued in 507 BC.^[18]

Caenina, described as a Sicel settlement, was conquered by Romulus, who celebrated his first triumph there. Later traditions associate the site with early Roman cult transfer.^[19]

Apiolae, located between Albano and Pavona, was destroyed by Tarquinius Priscus. Literary sources mention a temple of Apollo and a sacred spring.^[20]

Collatia, near modern Lunghezza, was conquered and colonized by the Romans. Livy records its formal surrender.^[21]

Cameria (or Camerium) became a Roman colony under Romulus but resisted Rome multiple times before its destruction in 502 BC.

Medullium, associated with Hostus Hostilius, was conquered but not destroyed. Its name suggests a possible Ligurian origin.^[22]

Alba Longa, traditionally founded by Ascanius, was considered the metropolis of the Latin League. Although its precise location remains unknown, some scholars propose it was a federation of Bronze Age hilltop communities centered around the sanctuary of Jupiter on Mons Albanus.^[23]

Archaeologically confirmed sites

Satricum, first in Pliny’s list of clara oppida, is noted for the sanctuary of Mater Matuta and the Latin-language Lapis Satricanus inscription.^[24]

Ficana, near modern Acilia, was destroyed twice by Ancus Marcius. Excavations have uncovered city walls, domestic structures, and a necropolis.

Tellenae appears in conquest narratives but has not been definitively excavated. Its inclusion in both Pliny and Dionysius suggests historical importance.

Crustumerium, north of Rome along the Via Salaria, yielded Iron Age tombs, habitation layers, and planned urban features.^[25]

Politorium, near Castel di Decima, was destroyed by Ancus Marcius. Archaeology confirms the presence of fortifications and burial grounds.

Corniculum, associated with Montecelio, was reportedly destroyed by Tarquinius Priscus. It is mentioned as the birthplace of Servius Tullius’s mother.^[26]

Gabii, east of Rome near the Via Prenestina, is among the best-studied Latin sites. Excavations have revealed city walls, sanctuaries, and orthogonal street planning. Gabii was a prominent rival to early Rome and features in both literary and archaeological records.

Tentative or lost sites

Bolae is frequently cited in Roman accounts of wars with the Aequians, but no secure location has been identified.

Corioli, connected with the legendary exploits of Coriolanus, was likely located near Genzano or Lanuvium, though its archaeological remains are unknown.

Scaptia, eponymous to the Scaptian tribe, may have been near Tibur or Passerano.^[27]

Curniculum (Corniculum), potentially the same as Corniculum above, is linked to Montecelio and shows Iron Age occupation.

Towns attested only in literature

Norba and Sulmo, listed by Pliny, lay within the territory later known as Latium Adiectum. Both were destroyed during the civil wars of the 1st century BC.

Labicum, Saturnia (the early name for Rome), Antipolis (the Janiculum), and others appear in literary lists but lack secure archaeological identification.

The cult of Jupiter Latiaris

The most significant unifying institution was the cult of Jupiter Latiaris, whose principal sanctuary stood on the summit of Mons Albanus (modern Monte Cavo) near Alba Longa. This sanctuary served as the focal point for the annual *feriae Latinae*, a pan-Latin festival attended by representatives of the Latin towns and, later, Roman magistrates.^[28] The rituals involved joint animal sacrifice, communal feasting, and the reaffirmation of Latin solidarity. Participation in the festival was both a religious obligation and a political act signaling membership in the Latin League.

Roman authors often portrayed Rome’s involvement in the cult as a mark of its leadership over the Latins. By the early Republic, the Roman consuls themselves were responsible for organizing the festival, reflecting Rome’s increasing hegemony.^[29]

Shared sanctuaries and cult sites

Beyond Mons Albanus, several other sanctuaries linked Latin settlements through common deities and rituals. The sanctuary of Mater Matuta at Satricum was a major center of worship from the 7th century BCE and remained active into the Republican period.^[30] Latin settlements also maintained local shrines to deities such as Diana, Ceres, and Hercules, with evidence of regional cult continuity across urban centers like Lavinium, Aricia, and Gabii.

Lavinium in particular held religious importance due to its association with the cult of the Penates and the sanctuary of Vesta. Archaeological excavations at Lavinium have uncovered a large complex of altars, votive deposits, and inscriptions, suggesting it was a key ritual site from an early date.^[31]

Funerary customs and material culture

The Latin communities shared a broadly similar funerary culture, characterized by cremation in the early Iron Age and later a transition to inhumation. Tumuli and chamber tombs have been found at sites such as Crustumerium and Praeneste, often accompanied by grave goods including pottery, weapons, and personal ornaments.^[32] These practices reflect both social stratification and evolving cultural interaction with neighboring regions, particularly Etruria and Campania.

Votive offerings and inscribed dedications have also been recovered from Latin sanctuaries, reflecting patterns of personal piety, elite display, and inter-community religious ties. These objects provide insights into literacy, language use, and the diffusion of religious iconography across Latium Vetus.

Linguistic comparisons

Wolfgang Helbig was the first to remark that the name of Alba Longa and of many other Ligurian settlements, such as Albieis north of Massalia, with their centre Alba Augusta, as well as Albium (Albion) Intemelium (now Ventimiglia), Albium (Albion) Ingaunum (now Albenga) and Alba Pompeia in Italy, could hardly mean "white", from the Latin adjective albus, since the rocks in the area of volcanic Mount Albanus are deep grey in colour.^[33] Giuseppe Sergi^[34] remarked that the early name of the Tiber was Albula, a name that recurs elsewhere in hydronymy where there are traces of Ligurians and Sicels.^[35] Further evidence connecting Ligures and Siculi was provided by a Neolithic skeleton unearthed at Sgurgola near Anagni that was painted red, as were the ones found in the Ligurian cave of the "Arene Candide". Sergi concluded that Ligures and Siceli were in fact just one ethnic group, but since they lived far apart, they had come to be considered as two distinct nations. Their identity could be confirmed by ancient toponyms found in Latium as well as other regions of Italy. Strabon also mentions that a former name for the Alps was Albia.

Other correspondences include the ancient name of the Lake of Bracciano, Sabatinus Lacus and the town of Sabate on its shores, and the river Sāpis in Umbria, names based on a Pre-Indo-European root *sāb- meaning water, seen also in the name Vada Sabatia (today Vado Ligure).^[36]

Agriculture and Land Use

The plains and lower hill slopes of Latium Vetus supported early forms of mixed agriculture. Cereal cultivation, particularly barley and spelt, was widespread, supplemented by legumes and olives.^[37] Vineyards were common in the hill country, and wine varieties such as *Albanus*, *Setinus*, and *Signinus* were noted in later Roman sources for their quality.^[38]

Animal husbandry was practiced more intensively in upland and marginal areas, particularly for sheep and goats. Evidence of transhumance routes and pasture systems is attested in later Republican sources but likely had earlier roots.^[39] The region’s volcanic soils, particularly around the Alban Hills and Campagna Romana, were well-suited for agriculture and contributed to the early development of surplus production.

Craft Production and Local Resources

Several sites in Old Latium show evidence of specialized craft production. The city of Gabii is noted for its quarries of red and white *lapis Gabinus* (a type of travertine), which was used extensively in building projects, including in Rome.^[40] Excavations at Satricum and Crustumerium have revealed kilns, ceramic assemblages, and tools related to pottery and metallurgy, indicating localized artisanal economies.^[41]

Domestic weaving and textile production are inferred from spindle whorls and loom weights found in domestic contexts, particularly in middle and late Iron Age strata. Metal objects and slag residues suggest small-scale smithing activities, although ironworking was not as industrialized as in Etruria.

Trade and Exchange

Old Latium participated in regional exchange networks from an early period. Imported pottery and prestige goods from Etruria, Campania, and Greece have been found at multiple Latin sites, including Praeneste, Gabii, and Lavinium.^[42]

While there is no direct evidence of coinage in Latium Vetus during the early Iron Age, wealth circulation occurred through elite exchange, votive offerings, and possibly reciprocal redistribution at religious centers. The development of early roadways, such as the forerunners of the Via Latina and Via Appia, facilitated trade and movement between upland and coastal settlements.

Evidence from votive deposits also indicates the movement of cult objects and goods along shared ritual routes, particularly to the sanctuary of Jupiter Latiaris on Mons Albanus.^[43]