Black Hebrew Israelites

Church of the Living God, the Pillar Ground of Truth for All Nations

The oldest known Black Hebrew organization is the Church of the Living God, the Pillar Ground of Truth for All Nations.^[25][32] The group was founded by Frank Cherry in Chattanooga, Tennessee, in 1886, and it later moved to Philadelphia.^[33] Cherry, who was from the Deep South and had worked as a seaman and for the railroads before his ministry, taught himself Hebrew and Yiddish.^[34] Theologically, the Church of the Living God mixed elements of Judaism and Christianity, counting the Christian Bible—including the New Testament—and the Talmud as essential scriptures.^[35][36]

The rituals of Cherry's congregation incorporated many Jewish practices and prohibitions alongside some Christian traditions.^[37] For example, during prayer, the men wore skullcaps and congregants faced east. In addition, members of the church were not permitted to eat pork.^[37] Prayers were accompanied by musical instruments and gospel singing.^[38] Cherry died in 1963 when he was about 95 years old; his son, Prince Benjamin F. Cherry, succeeded him.^[36][39] Members of the church believed that he had temporarily left and would soon reappear in spirit in order to lead the church through his son.^[39][26]

Church of God and Saints of Christ

The Church of God and Saints of Christ was established in Lawrence, Kansas, in 1896 by African American William Saunders Crowdy.^[40] The group established its headquarters in Philadelphia in 1899; Crowdy later relocated to Washington, D.C., in 1903. After Crowdy's death in 1908, the church continued to grow under the leadership of William Henry Plummer, who moved the organization's headquarters to its permanent location in Belleville, Virginia, in 1921.^[41]

In 1936, the Church of God and Saints of Christ had more than 200 "tabernacles" (congregations) and 37,000 members.^[26][42] Howard Z. Plummer succeeded his father and became head of the organization in 1931.^[43] His son, Levi Solomon Plummer, became the church's leader in 1975.^[44] The Church of God and Saints of Christ was led by Jehu A. Crowdy Jr., a great-grandson of William Saunders Crowdy, from 2001 until his death in 2016.^[45] Since 2016, it has been led by Phillip E. McNeil.^[46] As of 2005, the church had fifty tabernacles in the United States and dozens more in Africa.^[40]

The Church of God and Saints of Christ describes itself as "the oldest African-American congregation in the United States that adheres to the tenets of Judaism".^[32][47] The church teaches that all Jews were originally Black and that African Americans are descendants of the Ten Lost Tribes.^[48][49] Members believe that Jesus was neither God nor the son of God, but rather an adherent of Judaism and a prophet. They also consider William Saunders Crowdy, their founder, to be a prophet.^[50]

The Church of God and Saints of Christ synthesizes rituals from both normative Judaism and Christianity. They have adopted rites drawn from both the Old and New Testaments. Its Old Testament observances include the use of the Hebrew calendar, the celebration of Passover, the circumcision of infant males, the commemoration of the Sabbath on Saturday, and the wearing of yarmulkes. Its New Testament rites include baptism (immersion) and footwashing, both of which have Old Testament origins.^[48][49]

Commandment Keepers

In 1919, Wentworth Arthur Matthew, an emigrant from Saint Kitts, founded a Black Hebrew Israelite congregation in Harlem, the Commandment Keepers of the Living God.^[6] In 1930, Matthew established the Ethiopian Hebrew Rabbinical College (later renamed the Israelite Rabbinical Academy) in Brooklyn.^[51] He ordained more than 20 rabbis, who went on to lead congregations throughout the United States and the Caribbean.^[52][53] He remained the leader of the Commandment Keepers in Harlem, and in 1962 the congregation moved to a landmark building on 123rd Street.^[54]

Matthew died in 1973, sparking an internal conflict over who would succeed him as head of the Harlem congregation. Shortly before his death, Matthew named his grandson, David Matthew Doré, as the new spiritual leader. Doré was 16 years old at the time. In 1975, the synagogue's board elected Rabbi Willie White as its leader. Rabbi Doré occasionally conducted services at the synagogue until the early 1980s, when White had Doré and some other members locked out of the building. Membership declined throughout the 1990s, and by 2004, only a few dozen people belonged to the synagogue. In 2007 the Commandment Keepers sold the building while various factions among former members sued one another.^[55][56]

Matthew was influenced by the non-black Jews he met as well as by Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League. Garvey used the Biblical Jews in exile as a metaphor for black people in North America. One of the accomplishments of Garvey's movement was to strengthen the connection between black Americans and Africa, Ethiopia in particular. When Matthew later learned about the Beta Israel—Ethiopian Jews—he identified with them, teaching that the Commandment Keepers were descendants of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba.^[57][58] Matthew taught that "the Black man is a Jew" and "all genuine Jews are Black men",^[52] but he valued non-black Jews as those who had preserved Judaism over the centuries.^[6] Matthew maintained cordial ties with non-black Jewish leaders in New York and frequently invited them to worship at his synagogue.^[53]

Today, the Commandment Keepers follow traditional Jewish practices and observe Jewish holidays.^[27] Members observe kashrut, circumcise newborn boys, and celebrate Bar and Bat Mitzvahs, and their synagogue has a mechitza to separate men and women during worship.^[55]

Besides the Harlem group, there are eight or ten Commandment Keeper congregations in the New York area, and others exist throughout North America as well as in Israel.^[59] Since 2000, seven rabbis have graduated from the Israelite Rabbinical Academy founded by Matthew.^[60]

African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem

Ben Ammi Ben-Israel established the African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem in Chicago, Illinois, in 1966, a time when black nationalism was on the rise as a response to the civil rights movement. In 1969, after a sojourn in Liberia, Ben Ammi and around 30 Hebrew Israelites moved to Israel.^[29] Over the next 20 years, nearly 600 more members left the United States for Israel. As of 2006, about 2,500 Hebrew Israelites live in Dimona and two other towns in the Negev region of Israel, where they are widely referred to as Black Hebrews.^[61] In addition, there are African Hebrew Israelite communities in several major American cities, including Chicago, St. Louis, and Washington, D.C.^[62]

The Black Hebrews believe they are descended from members of the Tribe of Judah who were exiled from the Land of Israel after the Romans destroyed the Second Temple in 70 CE.^[61][63] The group incorporates elements of African-American culture into their interpretation of the Bible.^[62] They do not recognize rabbinical Jewish interpretations such as the Talmud.^[61] The Black Hebrews observe Shabbat and biblically ordained Jewish holidays such as Yom Kippur and Passover.^[64] Men wear tzitzit on their African print shirts, women follow the niddah (biblical laws concerning menstruation),^[62] and newborn boys are circumcised.^[29] In accordance with their interpretation of the Bible, the Black Hebrews follow a strictly vegan diet and only wear natural fabrics.^[29][63] Most men have more than one wife, and birth control is not permitted.^[61]

When the first Black Hebrews arrived in Israel in 1969, they claimed citizenship under the Law of Return, which gives eligible Jews immediate citizenship.^[65] The Israeli government ruled in 1973 that the group did not qualify for automatic citizenship because they could not prove Jewish descent and had not undergone Orthodox conversion. The Black Hebrews were denied work permits and state benefits. The group accused the Israeli government of racist discrimination.^[66] In 1981, a group of American civil rights activists led by Bayard Rustin investigated and concluded that racism was not the cause of the Black Hebrews' situation.^[28] No official action was taken to return the Black Hebrews to the United States, but some individual members were deported for working illegally.^[66]

Some Black Hebrews renounced their American citizenship in order to try to prevent more deportations. In 1990, Illinois legislators helped negotiate an agreement that resolved the Black Hebrews' legal status in Israel. Members of the group are permitted to work and have access to housing and social services. The Black Hebrews reclaimed their American citizenship and have received aid from the U.S. government, which helped them build a school and additional housing.^[66] In 2003, the agreement was revised, and the Black Hebrews were granted permanent residency in Israel.^[30][67] In 2009, Elyakim Ben-Israel became the first Black Hebrew to gain Israeli citizenship. The Israeli government said that more Black Hebrews may be granted citizenship.^[68]

Today, young men and some women from the African Hebrew community of Jerusalem serve in the IDF; they have entered international sporting events and academic competitions under the Israeli flag and have represented Israel twice in the Eurovision Song Contest.^[69] The Black Hebrews of Israel maintain a popular gospel choir that tours throughout Israel and the United States. The group owns restaurants in several Israeli cities.^[66] In 2003, the Black Hebrews garnered public attention when singer Whitney Houston visited them in Dimona.^[70][71][72] In 2006, Eddie Butler, a Black Hebrew, was chosen by the Israeli public to represent Israel in the Eurovision Song Contest.^[61][67]

One West Camp and splinter groups

The One West Camp is a messianic subdivision of Black Hebrew Israelite groups that believe in the Old Testament, the New Testament and the exclusive identification of the Twelve Tribes of Israel with ethnic communities of Black, Latin American, and Native American descent in the Americas.^[73] The camp is named after its first grouping, which was located at One West 125th Street in Harlem in New York City, then known as the 'Israeli School of Universal Practical Knowledge'. The movement has since splintered into numerous "camps", including the Israelite Church of God in Jesus Christ and the Israelite School of Universal Practical Knowledge. Other notable groups descended from the One West Camp include the Gathering of Christ Church,^[74] Masharah Yasharahla,^[75] and Israel United in Christ.^[76][77]

Attacks

Alberta Williams King, the mother of Martin Luther King Jr., was shot and killed on June 30, 1974, at age 69, by Marcus Wayne Chenault, a 23-year-old Black man from Ohio, who had adopted the theology of a Black Hebrew Israelite preacher, Hananiah E. Israel of Cincinnati, and had shown interest in a group called the "Hebrew Pentecostal Church of the Living God".^[90] Israel, Chenault's mentor, castigated Black civil rights activists and Black church leaders as being evil and deceptive, but claimed in interviews not to have advocated violence.^[91] Chenault did not draw any such distinction, and first decided to assassinate Rev. Jesse Jackson in Chicago, but canceled the plan at the last minute.^{[citation needed]}

On December 10, 2019, two people who had expressed interest in the Black Hebrew Israelite movement were killed in a shootout with police. They had killed a police detective at Bayview Cemetery, and three people at the JC Kosher Supermarket in Jersey City, New Jersey: the Jewish co-owner of the grocery store, an employee, and a Jewish shopper. Authorities treated the incident as an act of domestic terrorism.^[92] Capers Funnye, who had been the rabbi for 26 years of the 200-member Beth Shalom B'nai Zaken Ethiopian Hebrew Congregation, condemned the attack and said that his community was "gripped by sadness" over "the heinous actions of two disturbed individuals who cloaked themselves in anti-Semitism and hate-filled rhetoric". He criticized the media reports for using "the term 'Black Hebrew Israelites' without distinction as if the description is a one size fits all and it is absolutely not". Funnye said: "we don't want to be seen as some radical fringe group with a false narrative because we are black and profess Judaism; we are Torah-oriented Jews."^[93][94][95]

On December 28, 2019, a man with a machete attacked several Orthodox Jewish people during Hanukkah celebrations in a house in Monsey, New York. Authorities revealed that his journals included references to Black Hebrew Israelites, stating that "Hebrew Israelites" have taken from "ebinoid Israelites".^[96]