Sultanate of Massina

Under the Songhai

During the reign of Alioun II (1466-1480), Sonni Ali attacked Massina but was unable to subdue it.^[8] In 1494 Demba Dondi, brother of the reigning Fondoko Nia, allied with the Mali Empire against the Songhai, but was killed.^[8] Under Nia's rule Songhai authority was extended over Massina, and he transferred his capital from Keke to the Guimbala region.^[8] The Massina-mondyo was in charge of collecting taxes and tribute in the region on behalf of the Askia, and ensuring the loyalty of the leaders.

In 1582, brigands from Massina attacked a flotilla of boats belonging to the Songhai prince Al-Hajj, pillaging his belongings. Al-Hajj's older brother, Kurmina-fari Muhammad Benkan, devastated the region in revenge, killing many prominent Muslim clerics. The reigning Askia Daoud died soon after.^[9] Fondako Bubu Maryam was accused of plotting against the new Askia, Al-Hajj, and taken to Gao. He managed to convince the Askia of his loyalty, but remained in the capital to serve the ruler personally. Hammad-Amina was named Fondako in his place.^[10] Bubu Maryam would eventually die at the Battle of Tondibi in 1591.^[11]

Under the Arma

After Songhai's fall to the Moroccan invaders, Hammad-Amina had to navigate complicated and dangerous political waters. When Djenne came under attack from the Baghana-fari Bukar, he aided the Moroccans in suppressing the city's revolt and repelling the resistance.^[12] In late 1598, the Moroccan Pasha arrested the family of a prominent Islamic scholar who had been killed by the Moroccan troops. Hammad-Amina came to Timbuktu to try and intercede on their behald, but was himself arrested and imprisoned for a period. Upon his return home, he began ignoring Moroccan demands, and so a force of Arma arquebusiers, supported by the army of the puppet Askia, marched on Massina.^[13] Hammad-Amina recruited an army of Bambara mercenaries, but were defeated at Thulu Fina. Much of the fondako's family fell into Moroccan hands, but he and his generals managed to retreat to Diarra.^[13]

In April 1599, Mansa Mahmud IV of the Mali Empire, looking to take advantage of the chaos in the Niger river valley, attacked Djenne, with Hammad-Amina supporting him.^[14] Although the Malians were defeated, the victors focused on punishing the king of N'Goa, leaving Hammad-Amina free to find reinforcements. He defeated the Djenne garrison and the forces of his nephew, who the Arma had put in charge of Massina, at Tiyi, and forced them to accept his return to the throne.^[15]

In 1610 the Songhai government in exile made another stab at dislodging the Arma. Dendi-fari Bukar won a series of battles and made significant gains in Massina, prompting a series of rebellions against Moroccan rule in nearby cities. The fondoko refused to join in, though the region suffered heavily from Moroccan reprisals nevertheless.^[16]

In 1627, Hamadou-Amina II became ardo and two years later refused to submit to the Moroccans. The Moroccan pasha led a military expedition against the Fulbe, but was defeated by Hamadou-Amina's guerilla tactics. He agreed to recognize Hamadou-Amina II as ardo if he would pay tribute, but the latter refused. In 1644, another pasha invaded. Hamadou-Amina won a victory at Say, but was defeated and forced to flee. After rebuilding his forces he returned to defeated his cousin, who the Moroccans had installed as ardo, and ruled until 1663.^[8]

Under the Bambara

In the early 1700s, Biton Coulibaly conquered Massina and brought it under the sway of the Bambara Segou Empire.^[17][18] Over time the common people came to increasingly resent the combined oppression of the Bambara, the Fula warlords, and the religious elite in Djenne. Charismatic preacher Ahmadu Lobbo used this discontent to build up a large base of support. In 1817 the authorities attempted to expel him from Djenne. One of Lobbo's followers encountered Giɗaaɗo, son of the ruling Arɗo mawdo Aamadu, in a market, who insulted him. Another follower returned to the market the next week, and when Giɗaaɗo refused to apologize, killed him.^[19] This set off a civil war in Massina.

Ardo Amadu sought the support of Da Monzon Diarra, faama of Segou, and Gelaajo, the pereejo (chief) of the Sidibe military aristocracy of Kounari. On March 21st 1818, the Segou army attacked Lobbo's small force before their allies arrived and were defeated. The victory massively boosted Lobbo's prestige and recruitment, and paralyzed the Massina aristocracy. Lobbo had taken control of Massina by mid-May 1818, founding the Caliphate of Hamdullahi.^[20]

Rulers