Ahmed al-Sharaa

Youth in Syria

Ahmed Hussein al-Sharaa was born on 29 October 1982 in Riyadh to a middle-class family,^[8][9][10] of four brothers and two sisters.^[11] His father, Hussein al-Sharaa, worked there as an oil engineer at the ministry of petroleum, and his mother was a geography teacher.^[12] The family returned to Syria in 1989, settling in the affluent Mezzeh neighborhood of Damascus, where his father opened a real estate office.^[13][14] Whilst living in an apartment block in the Mezzeh neighbourhood in the west of the city,^[11] al-Sharaa worked part-time as a child in a grocery store owned by his father. He frequented the Shafi'i mosque in his neighbourhood, and at the age of seventeen, he became religious.^[15]

According to Hussam Jazmati, who produced his most definitive biography, classmates remember al-Sharaa as a studious but unremarkable boy who wore thick glasses and avoided attention.^[12] During his youth, he was described as "quiet" and "shy",^[8] "manipulatively intelligent" but "socially introverted", and was noted for his "good looks" and a romance with an Alawite girl which both families opposed.^[16] In a Reuters interview, a local shop owner from Al-Sharaa's neighborhood recalled meeting him in 1996 during his youth. The shop owner described him as a polite and reserved young man who spoke little and was rarely seen in the neighborhood unless necessary. After the rebel takeover of Damascus, Ahmed al-Sharaa briefly returned to his childhood home, where he was seen politely asking the current occupants if they could leave, stating that the house held personal memories for him. Witnesses say the residents obliged, but al-Sharaa has not been seen there since. Despite his absence, neighbors from the block continue to knock on his door daily, hoping to see him.^[11]

Al-Sharaa said that, while he largely disagreed with his father ideologically, they both shared a commitment to defending the Palestinians. Besides the story of his grandfather's and his family's displacement from the Golan Heights, al-Sharaa said that the Second Intifada in 2000 had an impact on his life choices.^[17][18] According to an interview with Frontline in 2021, al-Sharaa stated he was radicalized by the Palestinian Second Intifada in "the early 2000s."^[19] He said: "I started thinking about how I could fulfil my duties, defending a people who are oppressed by occupiers and invaders."^[20] Asked many years later about his reaction to the 2001 9/11 attacks, al-Sharaa stated that "anyone who lived in the Islamic or Arab world at the time who tells you he wasn't happy about it would be lying", but added that he understood "regret" about the killing of innocent people.^[17]

Al-Sharaa enrolled at Damascus University, studying media studies and enrolling in the Faculty of Medicine for two years. Whilst being a university student, he travelled from Damascus to Aleppo on Fridays to attend the sermons of Mahmoud Gul Aghasi (Abu al-Qaqaa) there.^[18][21] After studying for two years, he moved to Iraq in 2003.^{[8][12][13][14]}

Iraq war

Al-Sharaa traveled from Damascus to Baghdad by bus just weeks before the 2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq.^[20] In 2003, al-Sharaa was detained and questioned by the Syrian Military Intelligence Directorate for his illegal departure from Syria to Iraq, but he was released after denying any affiliation to any political parties or extremist groups.^[14] Once in Iraq, al-Sharaa quickly rose through the ranks of al-Qaeda in Iraq (AQI).^[20] The Times of Israel newspaper claimed in 2013 that al-Sharaa was a close associate of AQI leader, Abu Musab al-Zarqawi.^[22] In his 2021 interview with Frontline, al-Sharaa denied ever meeting al-Zarqawi and asserted that he served only as a regular foot-soldier under al-Qaeda against American occupation.^[23] The Economist reported in 2025 that Iraqi intelligence believed al-Sharaa was Zarqawi's deputy in 2004.^[24]

It is claimed that after Zarqawi was killed in a US airstrike in 2006, al-Sharaa left Iraq and briefly stayed in Lebanon, where he provided logistical support to the Jund al-Sham militant group.^[22] Before the beginning of the Iraqi civil war in 2006, al-Sharaa returned to Iraq to continue fighting.^[25] However, he was arrested by American forces while planting explosives^[24] and imprisoned for over five years in various detention centres,^[26] including Abu Ghraib, Camp Bucca, Camp Cropper and Camp Taji prisons.^[27][28] Al-Sharaa convinced the Iraqi authorities holding him that he was a local Iraqi, not a foreign fighter.^[24] It is said that during this time, al-Sharaa taught classical Arabic to other prisoners, increasing his popularity.^[22]

Syrian uprising and foundation of al-Nusra

Upon his release from prison coinciding with the Syrian Revolution, al-Sharaa was tasked in August 2011 by Ayman al-Zawahiri and al-Qaeda's central command to establish al-Qaeda's mission in Syria.^[29][27] Al-Shara'a crossed into Syria with significant funding and a mandate to establish al-Qaeda's presence.^[25][28] Alongside senior operatives from al-Qaeda's central command, he formed "Jabhat al-Nusra", also known as the Al-Nusra Front, which was envisioned by al-Zawahiri as a broad coalition of Islamist militant groups led by al-Shara'a in Syria, with direct allegiance to al-Qaeda's central command.^[30] During this time, al-Sharaa went under the nom de guerre Abu Mohammad al-Julani, which is sometimes transliterated as Joulani, Jolani, and Golani.^[22][31] According to one source, his "al-Julani" nisba referred to the al-Julani neighborhood of Fallujah in Iraq where he had distinguished himself.^[32]

Despite tensions with then al-Qaeda-allied leadership of the Islamic State of Iraq (ISI), who were content with his departure, al-Sharaa proceeded to orchestrate an agreement with Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi to expand al-Qaeda's Syrian branch, Jabhat al-Nusra. The group maintained this alliance with ISI the until 2013, with an arrangement between al-Sharaa and al-Baghdadi to resolve disputes through mediation by al-Qaeda Emir Ayman al-Zawahiri. Over time, al-Sharaa began distancing himself from transnational jihadist ideology, increasingly framing his faction within the context of a nationalist Syrian struggle.^[20] ISI initially provided al-Sharaa with fighters, weapons, and funding to establish the al-Qaeda affiliate in Syria. Al-Sharaa implemented these plans alongside ISI leaders after his release from prison.^[33]

Sources differ on whether Sharaa was the one who came up with the idea of forming Jabhat al-Nusra or another leader in the Islamic State of Iraq; however, what is certain is that al-Sharaa became the "general emir" of al-Nusra when it was officially announced in January 2012. By December of that year, the US Department of State designated Jabhat al-Nusra as a terrorist organization, identifying it as an alias for al-Qaeda in Iraq (also known as the Islamic State of Iraq).^[34] The US State Department listed al-Sharaa as a Specially Designated Global Terrorist in May 2013.^[35]

Under al-Sharaa's leadership, al-Nusra emerged as one of Syria's most powerful groups.^[22] Its stronghold was centered on the Idlib Governorate in northwestern Syria.^[36]

War crimes of al-Nusra (2012–2016)

Under al-Shara'a's leadership, al-Nusra Front and Jabhat Fateh al-Sham perpetrated a series of war crimes, suicide bombings, forced conversions, ethnic cleansing and sectarian massacres against Syria's Christian, Alawite, Shia and Druze minorities. These included the January 2012 al-Midan bombing, which killed 26 people and wounded 63.^[37] In 2015, al-Nusra fighters killed Druze villagers during the Qalb Loze massacre.^[38][39][40] The Saudi state-owned Al Arabiya news network claimed that al-Nusra's leadership denounced the attack, asserting that the actions of the attackers were in contradiction to the organization's policy.^[41] Al-Nusra was also suspected of carrying out the 10 May 2012 Damascus bombings killing 55 people and injuring over 400,^[42] and the February 2013 Damascus bombings which killed 83 people, most of them civilians and children, and were condemned by the Syrian opposition.^[43]

In June 2013 al-Nusra claimed the "storming and cleansing of Hatla" during which 30 to 60 Shia civilians were killed as part of a wider campaign of sectarian cleansing in the Deir ez-Zor Governorate.^[44]

On 12 May 2016, rebels led by al-Nusra Front massacred 42 civilians and seven NDF militiamen while kidnapping up to 70 people after taking control of the Alawite village of Zara'a in Southern Hama.^[45][46]

Al-Nusra was also behind suicide bombings in Lebanon directed against Alawites and Shia populations, including the 2015 Tripoli, Lebanon bombings^[47] (for which the group claimed responsibility) and was suspected of carrying out the July 2013 Beirut bombing^[48] and the 2013 Iranian embassy bombing in Beirut.^[49]

Conflict with ISIS

As al-Sharaa carved out a fiefdom in Syria between 2012 and 2013, the Iraqi leadership of ISI grew suspicious of him.^[50] Al-Nusra became increasingly popular for providing social services and cooperating with other Syrian rebel groups against the Assad regime, and al-Sharaa ignored al-Baghdadi's orders to begin fighting these groups and assassinate opposition activists.^[51] Al-Baghdadi's top aide, Abu Ali al-Anbari, travelled to Syria to investigate al-Sharaa, concluding that he was a "cunning person; two-faced; [...] [who] glows when he hears his name mentioned on satellite channels".^[50]

Concerned about al-Nusra's popularity and al-Sharaa's perceived insubordination, al-Baghdadi unilaterally announced that al-Nusra would merge into ISI to form the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) in April 2013.^[51][52] The proposed merger would have eliminated al-Nusra's autonomy and allegiance to al-Qaeda's central command by placing all its leaders, decisions, and operations under Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi's direct control.^[53] To preserve al-Nusra's independence, al-Sharaa publicly pledged allegiance (bay'ah) directly to al-Qaeda's leader, Ayman al-Zawahiri, who issued a declaration that confirmed al-Nusra's independence from ISI,^[54][55][56] proclaiming that Syria was the "spatial state" of al-Nusra Front and that ISIL's rule was restricted to Iraq. The U.S. State Department listed al-Sharaa as a "Specially Designated Global Terrorist" in May 2013.^[57]

Al-Zawahiri repudiated al-Baghdadi's merger move which was announced without consulting or informing al-Qaeda's central command, and appointed Abu Khalid al-Suri as his emissary to mediate between the two groups and supervise the implementation of the accords.^[55][58] In late 2013, al-Zawahiri ordered al-Baghdadi to accept the annulment of the merger, who refused and attempted to proceed with it.^[52] By February 2014, efforts to end the dispute between ISIS and al-Nusra had failed, leading to al-Qaeda formally severing its ties with ISIS in February 2014 and leaving al-Nusra as the sole representative of al-Qaeda in Syria.^[59][54] After the assassination of Abu Khalid al-Suri on 23 February, al-Sharaa denounced ISIS and likened them to the Iraqi "sahawat" who fought against al-Qaeda alongside the U.S., accusing them of undermining the fight against Assad by fighting rebels.^[60] Open warfare between ISIS and al-Nusra ensued; al-Sharaa warned that the fighting risked giving a reprieve to Assad.^[61][22] Over the following months, ISIS captured much of the territory controlled by al-Nusra and the Syrian opposition,^[60] leaving an estimated four thousand fighters on both sides dead by February 2015.^[52] In June 2015, al-Sharaa told Al Jazeera that no resolution to the conflict was forthcoming, and that unless ISIS "repent to God and return to their senses", there would be "nothing but fighting between us".^[62]

Brief declaration of an Islamic Emirate in Syria (2014)

In July 2014, an audio recording of a major rally of fighters in Syria was leaked, including al-Sharaa, al-Nusra Front spokesman and former Osama bin Laden aide Abu Firas al-Suri, and al-Nusra deputy Emir and former Egyptian Islamic Jihad commander Ahmad Salama Mabruk. In it, al-Suri could be heard introducing al-Sharaa as "Abu Mohammad al-Julani", al-Nusra's emir, who then spoke of establishing an Islamic emirate in Syria. In a video released by al-Nusra on 8 August 2014, al-Suri said al-Nusra would declare an emirate in Syria only after consulting with other factions.^[63]

Threats against the United States

After the start of Operation Inherent Resolve, the U.S.-led coalition's airstrike campaign against the Islamic State in Syria, al-Sharaa, in a rare public declaration, described the airstrikes as an assault on Islam, and warned the Western public: "This is what will take the battle to the heart of your land, for the Muslims will not stand as spectators watching their sons bombed and killed in their lands, while you stay safe in your lands." In his audio message, released five days after the U.S. strikes, al-Sharaa said: "Do not let the West and America take advantage of the injustice of the Islamic State upon you … Those who are unable to repulse the Islamic State or others, then let them do so without being a partner with the crusader alliance." Al-Sharaa also warned that al-Nusra will fight any group which takes American cash and weapons, condemning "the traitorous factions that were bought by the West with some money and ammunition so as to be a pawn in its hands."^[64] In an audio statement released on 28 September 2014, al-Sharaa stated that he would fight the "United States and its allies" and urged his fighters not to accept help from the West in their battle against the Islamic State.^[65]

Resurgence of al-Nusra

In late May 2015, al-Sharaa was interviewed by Ahmed Mansour on Qatari news broadcaster Al Jazeera, hiding his face. He described the Geneva peace conference as a farce and claimed that the Western-backed Syrian National Coalition did not represent the Syrian people and had no ground presence in Syria. Al-Sharaa mentioned that al-Nusra have no plans for attacking Western targets, and that their priority is focused on fighting the al-Assad Syrian government, Hezbollah, and the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. Al-Sharaa told Al Jazeera America in 2015, "Nusra Front doesn't have any plans or directives to target the West. We received clear orders from Ayman al-Zawahiri not to use Syria as a launching pad to attack the U.S. or Europe in order to not sabotage the true mission against the regime. Maybe Al-Qaeda does that but not here in Syria. Assad forces are fighting us on one end, Hezbollah on another and ISIL on a third front. It is all about their mutual interests".^[66] When asked about Nusra's plans for post-war Syria, al-Sharaa initially stated that all factions in the country will be consulted before anyone thinks about "establishing an Islamic state," referring to Baghdadi. He also stated that Nusra would not target the country's Alawite minority despite its support for the Assad regime. He continued: "Our war is not a matter of revenge against the Alawites despite the fact that in Islam, they are considered to be heretics", he added.^[66] A commentary on this interview however states that al-Sharaa also added that Alawites would be left alone as long as they abandon elements of their faith which contradict Islam.^[67]

By October 2015, the Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war prompted al-Sharaa to call for increased attacks on Assad strongholds in Alawite villages in retaliation for Russian airstrikes on Sunni areas, saying, "There is no choice but to escalate the battle and target Alawite towns and villages in Latakia."^[68] He also called on Muslims from the former Soviet Union to attack Russian civilians if Russia continued attacking Syrian civilians.^[69][70]

Split from al-Qaeda

The Russian entrance into the war led to military setbacks for the Syrian opposition, causing their foreign backers to exert a greater level of influence over them. In January 2016, al-Nusra held unity negotiations with other rebel groups in a bid to pre-empt any foreign attempt to co-opt these groups against it. When the talks collapsed due to concerns over al-Nusra's affiliation with al-Qaeda, the reformist wing of al-Nusra—which may have comprised a third of its overall membership—presented al-Sharaa with an ultimatum: to sever ties with al-Qaeda and merge with other rebel groups, or face a mass defection.^[71]

In July 2016, al-Sharaa convened al-Nusra's Shura Council twice to discuss the matter. The first council was inconclusive, while the second council settled on a "middle way" after several meetings: to break ties with al-Qaeda outside of Syria while retaining them inside Syria.^[71] As al-Zawahiri could not be contacted, several senior al-Qaeda leaders, including al-Zawahiri's deputy Abu Khayr al-Masri, approved the split contingent on al-Zawahiri later approving it himself.^[72][71] If he did not, the split would have to be reversed. Al-Sharaa agreed to these terms, which were narrowly approved by al-Nusra's Shura Council.^[71]

On 28 July 2016, al-Sharaa announced that al-Nusra had severed ties with al-Qaeda and rebranded as Jabhat Fateh al-Sham (JFS).^[73][74] He added that the new organisation would have "no affiliation to any external entity".^[75] Ayman al-Zawahiri was publicly supportive of the split,^[73] even though he had rejected the plan when it was presented to him.^[72] In protest, several leading al-Qaeda loyalists in al-Nusra, including Abu Julaybib, Abu Khadija al-Urduni and Abu Humam al-Shami, left JFS.^[71] In September 2016, al-Zawahiri authored a letter that harshly reprimanded al-Sharaa for his "act of disobedience", and admonished al-Masri for giving it his approval. Due to al-Zawahiri's rejection, al-Masri withdrew his support for the split. Al-Qaeda leaders Abdullah Ahmed Abdullah and Saif al-Adel also opposed the split, and al-Sharaa was expected to reverse his decision. However, he refused to do so.^[71]

Formation of Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS)

After forming JFS, al-Sharaa attempted to arrange a merger with Ahrar al-Sham.^[76] However, negotiations collapsed due to al-Sharaa supporting Jund al-Aqsa—a group that he had secretly established to discourage al-Nusra's foreign fighters from defecting to ISIS—in their conflict with Ahrar al-Sham. Ahrar al-Sham's leadership were also concerned that JFS continued to maintain ties with al-Qaeda.^[71] Meanwhile, al-Sharaa came under attack from al-Qaeda. Abu Muhammad al-Maqdisi wrote a critique of the manhaj of JFS, and rumours circulated that al-Qaeda was preparing to launch a new affiliate in Syria named "Taliban al-Sham".^[71]

In a last-ditch bid to secure a merger, al-Sharaa led efforts to undermine Ahrar al-Sham's nationalist and anti-merger wing.^[71] When Ahrar al-Sham's leadership again refused to merge in December 2017, the pro-merge wing formed a breakaway "sub-faction" named Jaysh al-Ahrar.^[76][71] Shortly afterwards, JFS attacked Free Syrian Army (FSA) positions across Idlib and Aleppo, precipitating a conflict with Ahrar al-Sham. The conflict allowed JFS to defeat CIA-backed FSA groups, which it viewed as a "foreign conspiracy".^[71]

On 28 January 2017, al-Sharaa announced that JFS would dissolve and merge with Liwa al-Haqq, Jaysh al-Sunna, Ansar al-Din Front and the Nour al-Din al-Zenki Movement to form Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS),^[77][71] gaining approximately 3,000 to 5,000 more fighters.^[71] In an effort to demonstrate the maturity of the new group, al-Sharaa arranged for Jaysh al-Ahrar's leader Abu Jaber Sheikh to serve as the nominal leader of HTS, although leadership was formally transferred back to al-Sharaa by December 2017.^[76] The remaining al-Qaeda loyalists in JFS viewed the formation of HTS as a definitive break from the organisation and refused to join. A number of al-Qaeda veterans publicly criticised al-Sharaa for his moves; Sami al-Oraydi condemned it as insubordination against Ayman al-Zawahiri. As a result, several were arrested by HTS towards the end of 2017, including al-Oraydi. After their release, some were involved in forming Hurras al-Din, the new Syrian affiliate of al-Qaeda.^[76]

The U.S. government quickly rejected this rebranding, with the U.S. Embassy in Syria stating that "The core of HTS is Nusra, a designated terrorist organisation. This designation applies regardless of what name it uses or what groups merge into it." The Embassy characterized HTS's formation as an attempt to "hijack the Syrian revolution" rather than a move toward moderation.^[78] In May 2017 the US announced a $10 million reward for information leading to the identification or location of al-Sharaa, who the US State Departments said was the leader of a Syrian terror group associated with al-Qaida.^[79]

Under HTS, the group prioritized combating al-Qaeda and ISIS in an effort to improve its standing with Western nations. HTS successfully defeated ISIS, al-Qaeda, and most opposing forces in its territory, establishing control over most of Idlib Governorate, which it administered through the HTS-aligned Syrian Salvation Government.^[33][80]

Idlib governance

Under al-Sharaa's administration, Idlib had experienced significant development, becoming Syria's fastest-growing region despite being historically its poorest province. The area featured new luxury shopping malls, housing estates, and round-the-clock electricity supply surpassing that of Damascus. Educational facilities included a university with 18,000 segregated students. However, his administration faced criticism for its taxation policies, including customs taxes on goods from Turkey and checkpoint fees on smuggled goods, as well as the economic impact of the Turkish lira's depreciation, which was the main currency in the region.^[81][82]

In February 2023, Idlib Governorate, which was under the control of the Syrian Salvation Government (SSG), was one of the territories hardest hit by the earthquake.^[83] The Assad regime's policy of besieging northwestern Syria, blockading the supply of food, medicines and other humanitarian supplies, has further deteriorated the crisis in Idlib.^[84] Al-Sharaa, commander of the SSG-aligned Tahrir al-Sham rebel militia, criticized aid agencies of neglecting the situation in Idlib and called on the international community to be more proactive in reconstruction and relief efforts, adding that the "United Nations needs to understand that it's required to help in a crisis".^[85]

In March 2024, widespread protests erupted in Idlib Governorate against al-Sharaa's rule, with demonstrators adopting the slogan "Isqat al-Julani" ("Down with Julani"), reminiscent of earlier protests against the Assad regime. For over a month, hundreds and sometimes thousands of protesters marched through Idlib's cities and towns. The protests were triggered by multiple factors, including allegations of brutality, with reports of thousands of critics held in prisons, and economic grievances related to high taxes.^[81] In response to the unrest, al-Sharaa made several concessions. He released hundreds of detainees from a previous summer's security operation, including his former deputy Abu Maria al-Qahtani, who had been arrested along with 300 others in a purge of his movement. He also promised local elections and increased employment opportunities for displaced persons, while warning protesters against what he termed treachery.^[81]

Turkey, which had previously helped stabilize the province by connecting it to its electricity grid and allowing building materials to enter freely, had grown concerned about al-Sharaa's expanding influence. In response, it reduced trade through its border crossings with Idlib, affecting HTS's revenue. Reports indicated that al-Sharaa had twice attempted to take over other Turkish-administered areas in northern Syria.^[81]

Fall of the Assad regime

In late November 2024, al-Sharaa led HTS in its Deterrence of Aggression offensive against the pro-Assad Syrian Arab Army.^[19][86][87]

On 1 December 2024, the Al-Usbu' magazine reported rumours circulating in Arab media and social media that al-Sharaa had been killed in a Russian airstrike.^[88] This was disproven when he visited the Citadel of Aleppo on 4 December 2024, his forces having captured it earlier that month.^[89] During the capture of Aleppo, al-Sharaa instructed his forces not to "scare children" and HTS channels broadcast footage of Christians in the city continuing their normal activities. Archbishop Afram Ma'lui stated that services would not be affected by the change in control. After regime forces were expelled from the city, al-Sharaa declared "diversity is a strength". HTS quickly established administrative bodies to restore basic services, including garbage collection, electricity, and water. The group's General Zakat Commission began distributing emergency bread supplies, while its General Organization for Grain Trade and Processing provided fuel to local bakeries. The Ministry of Development and Humanitarian Affairs reported delivering 65,000 loaves of bread under a campaign called "Together We Return".^[90]

On 6 December, in a face-to-face interview with CNN, al-Sharaa declared that the offensive's goal was to remove Assad from power. Using his real name, Ahmed al-Sharaa, he explicitly pledged to protect minority groups,^[91] and outlined plans for establishing a government grounded in institutions and a "council chosen by the people".^[92] According to Dareen Khalifa of the International Crisis Group, al-Sharaa has considered dissolving HTS to strengthen civilian and military governance structures.^[93] He also expressed his intention to facilitate the return of Syrian refugees to their homes.^[94]

During its invasion of Syria in December 2024, Israel took control of the United Nations Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF) buffer area, a move that violated the 1974 disengagement agreement with Syria.^[95]

Formation of caretaker government

On 8 December 2024, then-Prime Minister Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali announced that the Syrian government would hand over power to a new elected government following the departure of Assad from Damascus, and al-Sharaa announced further that al-Jalali will "supervise state institutions until they are handed over". Al-Jalali later noted to Al Arabiya that he and al-Sharaa had been in contact prior to the announcement to discuss the handover.^[96] Al-Jalali announced in a social media video that he planned to stay in Damascus and cooperate with the Syrian people while expressing hope that Syria could become "a normal country" and begin diplomacy with other nations.^[97][98] The same day, al-Sharaa delivered a speech at Damascus's Umayyad Mosque, calling the fall of Assad's regime "a new chapter in the history of the region" and condemning Syria's role as "a playground for Iranian ambitions", characterized by sectarianism and corruption.^[92] In his victory speech following the fall of Damascus, he condemned Iran as a source of sectarianism and corruption, and framed the triumph as a turning point for Syria.^[92]

Al-Sharaa subsequently became the country's de facto leader as head of the HTS.^[1] On 9 December, HTS released a video of al-Sharaa, al-Jalali and Mohammed al-Bashir, the head of the de facto government in Idlib.^[99] On the same day, following the fall of the Assad regime, the Prime Minister of the Syrian Salvation Government, al-Bashir,^[100] was tasked with forming a transitional government after meeting with al-Sharaa and outgoing Prime Minister al-Jalali to coordinate the transfer of power.^[101] The next day, he was officially appointed by the Syrian General Command as the prime minister of the caretaker government.^[102][103]

Post-Assad governance

On 12 December 2024, al-Sharaa met with Turkish officials, which marked the first diplomatic delegation since Assad's overthrow.^[104] On 14 December, al-Sharaa stressed in his statements after the fall of the Assad regime that the next phase will be an opportunity to serve the Syrians and build the future. He explained that there is no justification for any foreign intervention after the withdrawal of Iranian forces from Syria, considering that the "Iranian project" was harmful, and that the victory in Syria is a victory over this project. He also stressed that what happened in Syria was not a coincidence, but rather the result of long preparations. He stated that Russia had become frustrated with the Assad regime, and that the change in leadership represented an opportunity for Russia to build a new relationship with Syria. Regarding the Syrian leadership, he pointed out the need to move away from the mentality of revolution and move towards a state of law and institutions.^[105][106] Al-Sharaa stated to Al Jazeera Arabic that the choices of governance will be discussed among a group of experts; then, public elections would be held to make the final choice.^[107]

Belarus, North Korea and the partially recognized state of Abkhazia evacuated their embassy personnel on 15 December.^[108] Ukraine plans to restore relations with Syria under the new administration, which had been cut in 2022 after the Assad regime recognized the quasi-states of the Donetsk People's Republic and the Luhansk People's Republic, which were annexed into Russia later that year.^[109]

During this period United States rescinded a seven-year old $10 million reward offer for information leading to al-Sharaa's capture after he met with a U.S. delegation led by Assistant Secretary of State for Near Eastern Affairs Barbara A. Leaf. This was the first formal US diplomatic presence in Syria in over 10 years. Leaf stated that the meeting was "productive", and later said she "found him to be a very methodical thinker with a strong degree of pragmatism".^[110][111] In a 2025 interview with PBS Frontline, Leaf said that unlike Hafez al-Assad, al-Sharaa gave “no diatribes, no recitation of 40 years of history.”^[112]

On 24 December, al-Sharaa announced the dissolution and merger of multiple rebel factions, including the Turkish-backed Syrian National Army, into the interim government's Ministry of Defense. The Kurdish-led Syrian Democratic Forces were excluded from this consolidation due to ongoing conflicts with Turkish-backed rebels in northeastern Syria. The reorganization coincided with al-Sharaa's efforts to establish new state institutions, including law enforcement and security forces, amid reports of revenge killings and highway banditry. The administration established processing centers for former regime soldiers and initiated police force recruitment.^[113] In an interview with al-Arabiya on 29 December, al-Sharaa said that he expected the process of writing a new constitution of Syria to take two or three years, with elections expected after four years.^{[114][115][116]} On the same day, al-Sharaa announced the promotion of 42 individuals to the rank of Colonel and five to the rank of Brigadier general in the Syrian Army. Additionally, Minister of Defence Murhaf Abu Qasra and Chief of the General Staff of the Syrian Armed Forces Ali Noureddine al-Naasan, were both promoted to the rank of Major general.^[117][118]

On 3 January 2025, German Foreign Minister Annalena Baerbock and French Foreign Minister Jean-Noël Barrot became the first top diplomats from European Union member states to travel to Damascus since the fall of Assad,^[119] meeting with al-Sharaa to discuss a new political beginning between Europe and Syria.^[120] On 29 January, a Russian delegation led by Deputy Foreign Minister Mikhail Bogdanov visited Damascus to meet al-Sharaa, reaffirming Moscow's support for Syria's sovereignty and territorial integrity following the fall of the Assad regime.^[121]

Appointment

On 29 January 2025, during the Syrian Revolution Victory Conference, Hassan Abdel Ghani, the spokesman of the rebels' Military Operations Command, announced the appointment of al-Sharaa as the president of Syria by the General Command of Syria.^[2] Ghani stated that al-Sharaa would govern the country during the transitional period, assume the duties of the president, and represent the nation on the international stage.^[122][123]

Al-Sharaa gave a brief speech during the conference, outlining the government's immediate priorities: filling the power vacuum, maintaining civil peace, building state institutions, developing the economy, and restoring Syria's international and regional standing.^[124] Other world leaders, including Vladimir Putin, Justin Trudeau, Ilham Aliyev, and Mohamed Ould Ghazouani, congratulated al-Sharaa on his appointment as president.^{[125][126][127][128]}

Early actions

On 30 January 2025, a day after appointing al-Sharaa as president, Qatari Emir Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani became the first head of state to visit Damascus since the fall of the Assad regime, discussing post-conflict reconstruction in Syria and other topics.^[130] and on 8 February, a delegation from the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, led by Director-General Fernando Arias, visited Damascus to meet with al-Sharaa for the first time since Assad's overthrow.^[131]

On 12 February, al-Sharaa held a phone call with Russian president Vladimir Putin, in what was the latter's first contact with a Syrian head of state since Assad's overthrow.^[132] On the same day, al-Sharaa met with representatives of the Syrian National Coalition and the Syrian Negotiation Commission, including their respective presidents, Hadi al-Bahra and Bader Jamous, and it was announced that both organizations would dissolve within the new authorities.^[133][134]

On 17 February, al-Sharaa made his first official trip to the coastal provinces of Latakia and Tartus, former strongholds of ousted president Bashar al-Assad.^[135] On 21 February, he met with China's ambassador to Damascus, Shi Hongwei, the first official interaction between the two nations since Assad's overthrow.^[136] On 23 February, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu demanded the complete demilitarization of southern Syria in the provinces of Quneitra, Daraa and Suwayda,^[137] and withdrawal of Syrian forces from Syrian territory south of Damascus.^[138]

Al-Sharaa rejected Netanyahu's demands.^[139][140] Hours later, Israel conducted a wave of airstrikes in Damascus and southern Syria.^[141] Israeli Defense Minister Israel Katz characterized al-Sharaa as "a jihadist terrorist from the Al-Qaeda school, committing atrocities against the Alawite civilian population."^[142] On 18 April, Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas met with al-Sharaa in Damascus, his first visit to Syria since 2009, where they discussed strengthening bilateral ties, regional developments including Gaza and the two-state solution, and agreed to form joint committees for cooperation.^[143][144] On 6 June, al-Sharaa visited Daraa Governorate for the first time since the fall of the Assad regime, coinciding with Eid al-Adha. The site of the first protests against Assad, Daraa is widely known as the "cradle of the revolution".^[145][146]

Domestic policy

As president, al-Sharaa signed an agreement with Druze representatives from Suwayda Governorate on 11 March 2025. The agreement integrated the community into state institutions while granting certain concessions, including the formation of locally recruited Druze police forces and the recognition of their distinct cultural identity.^[147]

On 17 May, al-Sharaa signed Presidential Decrees No. 19 and No. 20, appointing Abdulbaset Abdullatif and Mohammad Reda Jalkhi as heads of the commission. They were given 30 days to form a working team and draft the internal regulations required for the commission's operation, leading to the establishment of the National Commissions for Missing Persons and Transitional Justice.^[148][149] On 13 June, al-Sharaa signed Presidential Decree No. 66, creating an 11-member Supreme Committee to oversee the formation of sub-committees that will elect two-thirds of the People's Assembly.^[150]

Syrian Interim Constitution

Main article: 2025 Interim Constitution of Syria

On 29 January 2025, during the Syrian Revolution Victory Conference, Hassan Abdel Ghani, the spokesman for the Military Operations Command, announced the repeal of the 2012 Ba'athist era constitution.^[124] On 31 January in his first address as president, al-Sharaa stated that he would hold a "national dialogue conference" and issue a "constitutional declaration" to serve as a "legal reference" in lieu of the suspended Assad-era constitution.^[151] On 2 March, al-Sharaa declared the establishment of a committee tasked with drafting a temporary constitutional declaration to guide the country's transition.^[152]

On 13 March, al-Sharaa signed an interim constitution for a transitional period of five years.^[153] The Constitution sets a presidential system with the executive power at the hands of the president who appoints the ministers,^[154] without the position of prime minister.^[155] This constitution enshrines Islamic law as the main derivation of jurisprudence while preserving freedoms of opinion and expression.^[156] The People's Assembly was established to serve as the parliament during the five-year transition, overseeing the drafting of a new permanent constitution.^[157]

Western Syria clashes

Main articles: Western Syria clashes (March 2025–present) and 2025 massacres of Syrian Alawites

By 6 March 2025, clashes broke out in Western Syria between Assad loyalists and the Syrian caretaker government forces. It was the worst violence to have occurred since rebels toppled the Assad regime.^[158] In a speech addressing the Syrian people on 8 March, al-Sharaa stated: "Some remnants of the fallen regime attempted to test the new Syria they do not understand. Today, they see it as united, from east to west, from north to south, ...".^[159] Condemning the attacks against police forces, hospitals and civilians by Assadist insurgents,^[159] al-Sharaa said: "You attacked all Syrians and made an unforgivable mistake. The riposte has come, and you have not been able to withstand it."^[160] He demanded that they surrender their arms "before it's too late." He stated that he would "continue to work towards monopolizing weapons in the hands of the state, and there will be no more unregulated weapons."^[161]

Al-Sharaa urged pro-government fighters to "avoid any abuses" after reports emerged of massacres of Alawite civilians in Latakia.^[162] On 9 March, al-Sharaa announced the formation of an independent national committee comprising seven judges to investigate the events and violations in the Syrian coastal areas, emphasizing that the committee must submit its findings to the president within 30 days. He described the coastal violence as part of the "expected challenges."^[163][164] On 10 March, al-Sharaa condemned the recent mass killings of Alawite Muslims, emphasizing that such violence threatens national unity. He pledged to hold all perpetrators accountable, including those within his own ranks, stating, "We won't accept that any blood be shed unjustly, or goes without punishment or accountability, even among those closest to us." Al-Sharaa attributed the initial violence to pro-Assad groups backed by foreign entities but acknowledged subsequent revenge attacks. He reiterated his commitment to uphold rule of law and prevent the nation from descending into sectarian conflict.^[165]

The UK-based Syrian Observatory for Human Rights (SOHR) reported that 1,614 civilians were killed by armed militias supporting the Syrian caretaker government between 6 March 2025 and 12 March 2025.^[166] On that same day, al-Sharaa signed an agreement with Mazloum Abdi, the commander of the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), to incorporate SDF-controlled institutions into the state, establish border crossings, and pledge to fight the remnants of the Assad regime.^[167] The deadline for the merger has been set for the end of 2025.^[168] On 12 March, the caretaker government announced the formation of a National Security Council to be chaired by al-Sharaa.^[169][170]

Administration and cabinet

On 29 March 2025, al-Sharaa announced the formation of the transitional government during a ceremony at the Presidential Palace in Damascus.^[180] During the event, the newly appointed ministers took their oaths and presented their plans.^[181] It replaced the Syrian caretaker government established after the fall of the Assad regime.^[182] Four of the new ministers belonged to minority groups: Yaarub Bader, an Alawite; Amjad Badr, a Druze; Hind Kabawat, a Christian; and Mohammed Abdul Rahman Turko, a Kurd.^[183] The government also included figures from different groups of the former Syrian opposition. During the civil war, Mohammed Abu al-Khair Shukri was a member of the Syrian National Coalition, Raed al-Saleh was director of the White Helmets and Hind Kabawat served as deputy head of the Syrian Negotiation Commission in Geneva.^[184] The new government was described by some observers as technocratic, with "ministers chosen according to their competences" according to al-Sharaa.^[185]

Foreign relations

Al-Sharaa also made it clear he valued the diversity of Syria and had moderated on his domestic and foreign policy views.^{[91][186][187]}

After taking office as president, al-Sharaa made a trip abroad, visiting Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Jordan, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, France, Qatar, Turkey,^{[188][189][190][191]} and the United Arab Emirates.^{[192][193][194]} He attended the Arab League's emergency summit and the fourth Antalya Diplomacy Forum.^[195][196]

On 7 May 2025, he met with President Emmanuel Macron in France. It was his first official visit to a Western country since becoming president.^[197][198] On 14 May, he met with U.S. President Donald Trump in Saudi Arabia, the first meeting between American and Syrian presidents since Bill Clinton and Hafez al-Assad convened in Geneva in 2000,^[199] and urged him to join the Abraham Accords.^[200] Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman and Turkish president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan took part in the meeting.^[201]

Views on Syria

In an interview with Al Arabiya, al-Sharaa spoke about his ambitions for Syria's economic development. Al-Sharaa said that Syria needs 'experts who know the country's assets and try to benefit from all the experiences of the world, so as to come up with something that suits the nature of the society.' He said that after the fall of Bashar al-Assad's regime, there are 'major investment and economic opportunities', and that Saudi Arabia has a very large role in Syria's economic development. He also pointed to a major investment opportunity for all neighbouring countries that can implement joint economic projects with the new Syrian administration. Regarding the sanctions imposed on Syria, al-Sharaa said he had hoped the incoming U.S. administration, led by then President-elect Donald Trump, would lift them.^[209] He said one of his top priorities is to rebuild the economy by issuing a new currency after the value of the current currency is stabilised.^[210]

In his first interview as president on 9 February 2025, al-Sharaa told The Economist reporters that he opposed a federal system in Syria. He also mentioned that Turkey was planning a full-scale operation in the north against Kurdish forces but had asked them to wait to allow for negotiations. In response to a question about whether Sharia law could be implemented, he stated, "That decision rests with the experts. If they approve it, my duty is to enforce it; if they reject it, my duty is to uphold their decision as well." When asked if Syria would become a democracy, he responded, "In our region, there are various definitions of democracy. If democracy means that the people decide who will rule them and who represents them in parliament, then yes, Syria is moving in that direction."^[211]

In an interview with The New York Times in April 2025, al-Sharaa stated that his government was considering granting citizenship to foreign fighters who had lived in Syria for many years and supported the revolution. Furthermore, he said they were negotiating with Turkey and Russia regarding their military presence in Syria and suggested that both countries might eventually provide military support to his government.^[204]

On 27 May 2025, during the "Aleppo, the Key to Victory" event celebrating the Syrian revolution and the liberation of Aleppo, al-Sharaa exhorted the Syrian people to help reconstruct the country: "Our war against tyrants has ended, and our battle against poverty has begun."^[212]

In an interview with The Jewish Journal on 28 May 2025, al-Sharaa acknowledged that foreign powers will continue to influence Syria’s path. However, he emphasized that true Syrian sovereignty must begin with internal unity.^[213]

Views on Israel and Gaza

In an interview with the Syria TV news channel regarding the ongoing Israeli invasion of Syria, al-Sharaa said that after the fall of the Assad regime, Israel no longer has "any excuses" for attacking Syrian territory. He emphasized that diplomacy was the only way to ensure security and cautioned against "ill-considered military adventures".^[214][215] Al-Sharaa reportedly told a group of journalists that HTS would continue to uphold the 1974 Disengagement of Forces Agreement that ended the Yom Kippur War between Syria and her allies against Israel.^[216] In an interview with The New York Times in December 2024, he reaffirmed Syria's commitment to the Agreement.^[217] He stated, "Israel intended to enter Syria under the pretext of the Iranian presence, and its pretext has now ended."^[218]

On 14 December 2024, al-Sharaa clarified that his administration was not interested in engaging in a new conflict with Israel, emphasizing that Syria's priority was rebuilding after years of war. He noted that the country's deteriorating situation did not permit further hostilities and that maintaining state stability was paramount. al-Sharaa stressed that diplomatic solutions were the only viable path to ensuring security and long-term stability in the region.^[219]

On 11 February 2025, al-Sharaa stated in an interview with The Rest Is Politics that Trump's proposed United States takeover of the Gaza Strip would not succeed, asserting that no power can drive people from their land. He noted that many countries have tried and failed, especially during the recent war in Gaza.^[220] His statement came after a joint press conference in which Trump used strong language, declaring that the U.S. would "take over the Gaza Strip; we'll own it."^[221]

On 4 March 2025, at the extraordinary Arab League summit on Gaza, al-Sharaa condemned calls for the forced displacement of Palestinians, calling them a threat to all Arabs.^[222]

In an interview with the Jewish Journal on 28 May 2025, al-Sharaa addressed Syria's future relationship with Israel. He said, "I want to be clear: the era of endless tit-for-tat bombings must end. No nation prospers when its skies are filled with fear. The reality is, we have common enemies, and we can play a major role in regional security."^[213]

Views on Iran

Since the fall of the Assad regime, Ahmed al-Sharaa has made several statements regarding Iran's involvement in Syria. For many years, Syria and Iran maintained a strategic alliance, Damascus serving as a key component of the 'Axis of Resistance'.^[223] In an interview with Asharq Al-Awsat published 20 December 2024, al-Sharaa asserted that under Bashar al-Assad, Syria became a platform for Iran to exert influence over major Arab capitals, expand conflicts, and destabilize Gulf nations through activities such as drug trafficking, including the distribution of Captagon. He described Iran's regional ambitions as detrimental and framed the developments in Syria as a setback for Iran's influence in the region. "What we have done and achieved with the least possible damage and losses," he stated, adding that "the Iranian project in the region has been set back 40 years."^[224] In February 2025, al-Sharaa condemned Iran and its Axis of Resistance as a "strategic threat to the entire region"^[225]

Assassination attempts and death threats

The U.S. Special Envoy for Syria, Tom Barrack, warned of a possible assassination attempt against al-Sharaa due to his efforts to build ties with the West and promote inclusive governance.^[232] On 12 June 2025, L'Orient–Le Jour reported that al-Sharaa escaped two assassination attempts by jihadist groups for rejecting their ideology.^[233] On 27 June 2025, al-Sharaa was the target of a Hezbollah and ISIS-backed assassination attempt. It was planned to be carried out in the Daraa Governorate, but was foiled before it could be executed.^[234] The government denied reports of an assassination attempt on al-Sharaa in Daraa.^[235] On 16 July 2025, far-right Israeli National Security Minister Itamar Ben-Gvir openly called for al-Sharaa's assassination, stating that "the only thing that can be done is to eliminate al-Julani."^[236]